Secure data deletion in a database

ABSTRACT

A data storage application encrypts one or more data pages using a first initialization vector and one or more encryption keys. In addition, the data storage application encrypts one or more converter pages using a second initialization vector and the encryption key(s). The first initialization vector uses the converter page(s) to encrypt the data page(s). The encrypted data page(s) and the converter page(s) are stored to physical storage. Related apparatus, systems, techniques and articles are also described.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The subject matter described herein relates to techniques for securely deleting data from a database.

BACKGROUND

Due to security requirements, there are often instances in which data stored within a database must be deleted in a secure and permanent manner (i.e., the deleted data cannot be recovered). Conventional techniques for data deletion, such as repeatedly overwriting data, can consume significant processing resources which, in turn, can have a negative impact on the overall performance of the database.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, a data storage application encrypts at least one data page using a first initialization vector and at least one encryption key. In addition, the data storage application encrypts at least one converter page using a second initialization vector and the at least one encryption key. The first initialization vector uses the at least one converter page to encrypt the at leas tone data pages. The encrypted at least one data page and the at least one converter page are then stored to physical storage.

The first initialization vector can be defined by mapping data from the at least one converter page. The mapping data can include a logical page number for the at least one converter page. The mapping data can include a physical block number corresponding to a location at which the data page is stored in the physical storage. The mapping data can include a logical next page number for the at least one converter page and/or a savepoint version for the at least one converter page.

The second initialization vector can be defined by information from a parent page of the at least one converter page (i.e., a page directly above the corresponding converter page in a page hierarchy, etc.). The information from the parent page can include: a physical page number of the parent page and/or an index within a parent page.

Encryption and decryption of the at least one data page and/or the at least one converter page can use the same encryption keys in some implementations while in other implementations different encryption keys can be used. In some cases there can be a plurality of data pages with at least two data pages having different encryption keys.

Modification to the at least one data page results in a new data page being generated and a new corresponding converter page being encrypted and stored to the physical storage. At this point, the at least one converter page is no longer accessible after the new corresponding converter page is stored to the physical storage.

Articles of manufacture are also described that comprise computer executable instructions permanently stored on non-transitory computer readable media, which, when executed by a computer, causes the computer to perform operations herein. Similarly, computer systems are also described that may include a processor and a memory coupled to the processor. The memory may temporarily or permanently store one or more programs that cause the processor to perform one or more of the operations described herein. In addition, operations specified by methods can be implemented by one or more data processors either within a single computing system or distributed among two or more computing systems.

The subject matter described herein provides many advantages. For example, the current techniques allow for the secure deletion of a data within a database with minimal performance penalties. In addition, the current subject matter is advantageous in that it allows for a specified point-in-time when the data is to be securely deleted (e.g., savepoint after data deletion).

The details of one or more variations of the subject matter described herein are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a system including a data storage application;

FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram illustrating a technique for secure deletion of data;

FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating details of the system of FIG. 1; and

FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating storage of encrypted data pages and converter pages in physical storage.

Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 shows an example of a system 100 in which a computing system 102, which can include one or more programmable processors that can be collocated, linked over one or more networks, etc., executes one or more modules, software components, or the like of a data storage application 104. The data storage application 104 can include one or more of a database, an enterprise resource program, a distributed storage system (e.g. NetApp Filer available from NetApp of Sunnyvale, Calif.), or the like.

The one or more modules, software components, or the like can be accessible to local users of the computing system 102 as well as to remote users accessing the computing system 102 from one or more client machines 106 over a network connection 110. One or more user interface screens produced by the one or more first modules can be displayed to a user, either via a local display or via a display associated with one of the client machines 106. Data units of the data storage application 104 can be transiently stored in a persistence layer 112 (e.g. a page buffer or other type of temporary persistency layer), which can write the data, in the form of storage pages, to one or more storages 114, for example via an input/output component 116. The one or more storages 114 can include one or more physical storage media or devices (e.g. hard disk drives, persistent flash memory, random access memory, optical media, magnetic media, and the like) configured for writing data for longer term storage. It should be noted that the storage 114 and the input/output component 116 can be included in the computing system 102 despite their being shown as external to the computing system 102 in FIG. 1.

Data retained at the longer term storage 114 can be organized in pages, each of which has allocated to it a defined amount of storage space. In some implementations, the amount of storage space allocated to each page can be constant and fixed. However, other implementations in which the amount of storage space allocated to each page can vary are also within the scope of the current subject matter.

FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram 200 in which, at 210, a data storage application (such as the one described herein) encrypts at least one data page using a first initialization vector and at least one encryption key. In addition, the data storage application, at 220, encrypts at least one converter page using a second initialization vector and the at least one encryption key. The first initialization vector can use the at least one converter page to encrypt the plurality of data pages. The encrypted at least one data page and the at least one converter page are stored, at 230, to physical storage.

FIG. 3 shows a software architecture 300 consistent with one or more features of the current subject matter. A data storage application 104, which can be implemented in one or more of hardware and software, can include one or more of a database application, a network-attached storage system, or the like. According to at least some implementations of the current subject matter, such a data storage application 104 can include or otherwise interface with a persistence layer 112 or other type of memory buffer, for example via a persistence interface 302. A page buffer 304 within the persistence layer 112 can store one or more logical pages 306, and optionally can include shadow pages 311, active pages 313, data pages of virtual files 315 and the like. The logical pages 306 retained in the persistence layer 112 can be written to a storage (e.g. a longer term storage, etc.) 114 via an input/output component 116, which can be a software module, a sub-system implemented in one or more of software and hardware, or the like. The storage 114 can include one or more data volumes 310 where stored pages 312 are allocated at physical memory blocks.

In some implementations, the data storage application 104 can include a row store 303 and a column store 305. The row store 303 can comprise or be otherwise in communication with a page manager 314 and/or a savepoint manager 316. The page manager 314 can communicate with a page management module 320 at the persistence layer 112 that can include a free block manager 322 that monitors page status information 324, for example the status of physical pages within the storage 114 and logical pages in the persistence layer 112 (and optionally in the page buffer 304). The savepoint manager 316 can communicate with a savepoint coordinator 326 at the persistence layer 204 to handle savepoints, which are used to create a consistent persistent state of the database for restart after a possible crash. The row store 303 can access the persistence interface 302 via an absolute page API 307. The column store 305 which can store columns in contiguous memory can access the persistence interface 302 via a virtual file API 309.

In some implementations of a data storage application 104, the page management module of the persistence layer 112 can implement shadow paging. The free block manager 322 within the page management module 320 can maintain the status of physical pages. The page buffer 304 can included a fixed page status buffer that operates as discussed herein. A converter component 340, which can be part of or in communication with the page management module 320, can be responsible for mapping between logical and physical pages written to the storage 114. The converter 340 can maintain the current mapping of logical pages to the corresponding physical pages in a converter table 342. The converter 340 can maintain a current mapping of logical pages 306 to the corresponding physical pages in one or more converter tables 342. When a logical page 306 is read from storage 114, the storage page to be loaded can be looked up from the one or more converter tables 342 using the converter 340. When a logical page is written to storage 114 the first time after a savepoint, a new free physical page is assigned to the logical page. The free block manager 322 marks the new physical page as “used” and the new mapping is stored in the one or more converter tables 342.

The persistence layer 112 can ensure that changes made in the data storage application 104 are durable and that the data storage application 104 can be restored to a most recent committed state after a restart. Writing data to the storage 114 need not be synchronized with the end of the writing transaction. As such, uncommitted changes can be written to disk and committed changes may not yet be written to disk when a writing transaction is finished. After a system crash, changes made by transactions that were not finished can be rolled back. Changes occurring by already committed transactions should not be lost in this process. A logger component 344 can also be included to store the changes made to the data of the data storage application in a linear log. The logger component 344 can be used during recovery to replay operations since a last savepoint to ensure that all operations are applied to the data and that transactions with a logged “commit” record are committed before rolling back still-open transactions at the end of a recovery process.

With some data storage applications, writing data to a disk is not necessarily synchronized with the end of the writing transaction. Situations can occur in which uncommitted changes are written to disk and while, at the same time, committed changes are not yet written to disk when the writing transaction is finished. After a system crash, changes made by transactions that were not finished must be rolled back and changes by committed transaction must not be lost.

To ensure that committed changes are not lost, redo log information can be written by the logger component 344 whenever a change is made. This information can be written to disk at latest when the transaction ends. The log entries can be persisted in separate log volumes 317 while normal data is written to data volumes 310. With a redo log, committed changes can be restored even if the corresponding data pages were not written to disk. For undoing uncommitted changes, the persistence layer 112 can use a combination of undo log entries (from one or more logs) and shadow paging.

The persistence interface 302 can handle read and write requests of stores (e.g., in-memory stores, etc.). The persistence interface 302 can also provide write methods for writing data both with logging and without logging. If the logged write operations are used, the persistence interface 302 invokes the logger 344. In addition, the logger 344 provides an interface that allows stores (e.g., in-memory stores, etc.) to directly add log entries into a log queue. The logger interface also provides methods to request that log entries in the in-memory log queue are flushed to disk.

Log entries contain a log sequence number, the type of the log entry and the identifier of the transaction. Depending on the operation type additional information is logged by the logger 344. For an entry of type “update”, for example, this would be the identification of the affected record and the after image of the modified data.

When the data application 104 is restarted, the log entries need to be processed. To speed up this process the redo log is not always processed from the beginning. Instead, as stated above, savepoints can be periodically performed that write all changes to disk that were made (e.g., in memory, etc.) since the last savepoint. When starting up the system, only the logs created after the last savepoint need to be processed. After the next backup operation the old log entries before the savepoint position can be removed.

When the logger 344 is invoked for writing log entries, it does not immediately write to disk. Instead it can put the log entries into a log queue in memory. The entries in the log queue can be written to disk at the latest when the corresponding transaction is finished (committed or aborted). To guarantee that the committed changes are not lost, the commit operation is not successfully finished before the corresponding log entries are flushed to disk. Writing log queue entries to disk can also be triggered by other events, for example when log queue pages are full or when a savepoint is performed.

The column store 305 can persist its tables to virtual files provided by the persistence layer 112 via the virtual file API 307. Internally the persistence layer 112 can map a virtual file to a chain of linked pages 315 stored in the page buffer 304. Data belonging to one columnar table can be stored in multiple virtual files: one virtual file per column for a main storage and one virtual file for a delta log. In addition, one virtual file can optionally be stored per column for the main storage of the history part of the table, and/or one virtual file can optionally be stored per table for the delta of the history part of the table. The persistence layer 112 can maintain a directory that stores for each virtual file the start page and additional information such as the size and the type of the virtual file.

As stated above, virtual files can be used to store main and delta parts of columnar tables. These files can be read on the first access of the corresponding table into memory. With some implementations, while read accesses happen only on the in-memory representation of data, updates, appends, overwrites and truncates can also be written to the virtual file on disk. After moving of a virtual file from a source node to a destination node, the virtual file can be read into memory on first access on the destination node. To support recovery from log backup, moving a virtual file from one node to the other (if the techniques described below are not incorporated) can either require writing a redo log on the destination node for all moved data or explicit expensive synchronization of recovery on several nodes, which is in both cases too big performance penalty.

The content of a main storage can only change when a delta merge operation is performed. Therefore the main virtual files can only be written when a merge is done. Note that this does not mean that main data is written to disk during a merge operation: when the column store 305 writes to a virtual file, the data can be written into the page buffer 304 of the persistence layer 112. It is the responsibility of the persistence layer 112 to determine when the data in the virtual file is actually flushed to disk (e.g., during page replacement or at latest when the next savepoint is written, etc.).

A delta merge operation is unique to the column store 305 and is not synchronized with the savepoints of the persistence layer 112. Delta merge is primarily an optimization of in-memory structures performed on the granularity of a single table.

The savepoint, on the other hand, works on the whole database and its purpose is to persist changes to disk.

All changes executed on column store 305 data go into delta storages in the data volumes 310. The delta storages can exist only in memory as opposed to be written to disk. However, the column store 305 can, via the logger 344, write a persisted delta log that contains logical redo log entries for all operations executed on the delta storages. Logical log, in this context, means that the operation and its parameters are logged but no physical images are stored. When a delta merge operation is executed, the changes in the delta storage can be merged into the main storage and the delta log virtual file can be truncated.

Despite of the name “delta log”, the delta log virtual files are not really logs from the persistence layer 112 point of view. For the persistence layer 112 they are just data. The actual redo log and undo entries can be written a log volume 317 in the persistence layer 112. The virtual files used for delta logs can be configured as logged. Whenever column store 305 writes to the delta log virtual file, the persistence layer interface 302 invokes the logger 344 and an undo manager to write redo log entries and undo information. This ensures that the delta log virtual files can be restored after a restart—just like any other data. After the delta log virtual files are restored they are ready to be processed by column store 305 to rebuild the in-memory delta storages from the logical delta log entries.

During a delta merge operation the main files for the affected table(s) can be rewritten and the delta log file can be truncated. For all these operations no log is written by the persistence layer 112. This is possible, because all operations executed on the tables were already logged when the delta files were written as part of the original change operation. The merge operation does not change, create or delete any information in the database. It is just a reorganization of the way existing information is stored. To prevent that logs are written for a merge operation, the virtual main files are configured as not logged and a special not logged operation is used for delta log truncation.

During restart, the persistence layer 112 can restore the main virtual files from the last savepoint. The delta log virtual files can be restored from the last savepoint and from the redo log. When the persistence layer 112 has finished its part, the main storage of the columns can be loaded from the virtual files into column-store memory. This involves memory copy operations between data cache in the page buffer 304 of the persistence layer 112 and the contiguous memory areas in column store 305. The column store 305 can then execute the logical redo entries from delta log virtual files and rebuild the in-memory delta storages.

As mentioned above, there is metadata that allows to define for each columnar table whether it is to be loaded during system startup. If a table is configured for loading on demand, the restore sequence for that table is executed on first access.

With the current subject matter, a shadow paging technique is combined with a converter to enable permanent deletion of data with encryption. Data pages and converter pages written to disk can be encrypted using an encryption key (e.g., a user-defined key, etc.). An initialization vector used for the encryption of a page can be constructed as follows with reference to the diagram 400 of FIG. 4. For encrypting data pages 410, a first initialization vector used for encryption can be defined by mapping data from the corresponding converter page 420 (i.e., a page used for encryption purposes). This page mapping can comprise one or more of: a logical page number and a physical block number. In addition, in some implementations using the environment described above, the page mapping can comprise one or more of: a logical next page number, and a savepoint version.

For encrypting converter pages 420, a second initialization vector used for encryption can be defined by information from its parent page (e.g., physical page number of the parent page, index within the parent page, etc.). Instead of having per-page initialization vector, in some implementations, this information can be used to create a per-page encryption key if using symmetric encryption (i.e., the same key is used for encryption/decryption). The initialization vector method described above can also work for asymmetric encryption (i.e., different keys for encryption/decryption) with high performance (otherwise, a completely new asymmetric key pair would have to be generated for each page, which is very costly). Both the data pages 410 and the converter pages 420 are stored in physical storage 430.

Reading (i.e. decrypting) pages will be only possible if the corresponding converter entries are accessible to re-construct the initialization vector or decryption key as described above. Modifying data (including deletion of data) to result in modified data pages 440 can trigger write of the modified data and result in new converter pages 450 which are stored to new physical locations in the physical storage 430. These physical locations are at the latest with the next savepoint and switching to the new converter version atomically as last step of savepointing (by atomically overwriting an anchor page which points to the converter page root and contains some random initialization vector/key for it). Switching to the new converter page version 450 can make the old converter page 420 inaccessible as all its pages are encrypted and there is no way to determine initialization vector or key of the old converter root (as it has been forgotten when overwriting the anchor page). In addition, there is also no way to decode initialization vectors or keys of individual data pages.

Therefore, given some encrypted physical block it is almost impossible to brute force crack the encryption in finite time as at least the logical page number (40 bits), logical next page number (40 bits) and savepoint version (32 bits) are unknown. In addition, with data storage applications such as the example described herein that use various page sizes, there is no indication when a certain data page starts in the data volume file and what its physical block number would be. This provides arrangement provides further security with regard to the deletion of data.

Aspects of the subject matter described herein can be embodied in systems, apparatus, methods, and/or articles depending on the desired configuration. In particular, various implementations of the subject matter described herein can be realized in digital electronic circuitry, integrated circuitry, specially designed application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), computer hardware, firmware, software, and/or combinations thereof. These various implementations can include implementation in one or more computer programs that are executable and/or interpretable on a programmable system including at least one programmable processor, which can be special or general purpose, coupled to receive data and instructions from, and to transmit data and instructions to, a storage system, at least one input device, and at least one output device.

These computer programs, which can also be referred to programs, software, software applications, applications, components, or code, include machine instructions for a programmable processor, and can be implemented in a high-level procedural and/or object-oriented programming language, and/or in assembly/machine language. As used herein, the term “machine-readable medium” refers to any computer program product, apparatus and/or device, such as for example magnetic discs, optical disks, memory, and Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs), used to provide machine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor, including a machine-readable medium that receives machine instructions as a machine-readable signal. The term “machine-readable signal” refers to any signal used to provide machine instructions and/or data to a programmable processor. The machine-readable medium can store such machine instructions non-transitorily, such as for example as would a non-transient solid state memory or a magnetic hard drive or any equivalent storage medium. The machine-readable medium can alternatively or additionally store such machine instructions in a transient manner, such as for example as would a processor cache or other random access memory associated with one or more physical processor cores.

The subject matter described herein can be implemented in a computing system that includes a back-end component, such as for example one or more data servers, or that includes a middleware component, such as for example one or more application servers, or that includes a front-end component, such as for example one or more client computers having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an implementation of the subject matter described herein, or any combination of such back-end, middleware, or front-end components. A client and server are generally, but not exclusively, remote from each other and typically interact through a communication network, although the components of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication. Examples of communication networks include, but are not limited to, a local area network (“LAN”), a wide area network (“WAN”), and the Internet. The relationship of client and server arises by virtue of computer programs running on the respective computers and having a client-server relationship to each other.

The implementations set forth in the foregoing description do not represent all implementations consistent with the subject matter described herein. Instead, they are merely some examples consistent with aspects related to the described subject matter. Although a few variations have been described in detail herein, other modifications or additions are possible. In particular, further features and/or variations can be provided in addition to those set forth herein. For example, the implementations described above can be directed to various combinations and sub-combinations of the disclosed features and/or combinations and sub-combinations of one or more features further to those disclosed herein. In addition, the logic flows depicted in the accompanying figures and/or described herein do not necessarily require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. The scope of the following claims may include other implementations or embodiments. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer program product comprising a non-transitory machine-readable medium storing instructions that, when executed by at least one programmable processor, cause the at least one programmable processor to perform operations comprising: encrypting, by a data storage application, at least one data page using a first initialization vector and at least one encryption key; encrypting, by the data storage application, at least one converter page using a second initialization vector and the at least one encryption key, the first initialization vector using the at least one converter page to encrypt the at least one data page; and storing the encrypted at least one data page and the at least one converter page to physical storage.
 2. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein the first initialization vector is defined by mapping data from the at least one converter page.
 3. A computer program product as in claim 2, wherein the mapping data comprises a logical page number for the at least one converter page.
 4. A computer program product as in claim 3, wherein the mapping data comprises a physical block number corresponding to a location at which the data page is stored in the physical storage.
 5. A computer program product as in claim 4, wherein the mapping data comprises a logical next page number for the at least one converter page.
 6. A computer program product as in claim 5, wherein the mapping data comprises a savepoint version for the at least one converter page.
 7. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein the second initialization vector is defined by information from a parent page of the at least one converter page.
 8. A computer program product as in claim 7, wherein the information from the parent page comprises: a physical page number of the parent page.
 9. A computer program product as in claim 7, wherein the information from the parent page comprises: an index within a parent page.
 10. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein encryption and decryption of the at least one data page use the same encryption keys.
 11. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein encryption and decryption of the at least one data page use different encryption keys.
 12. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein encryption and decryption of the at least one converter page use the same encryption key.
 13. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein encryption and decryption of the at least one converter page use different encryption keys.
 14. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein there are a plurality of data pages and at least two data pages have different encryption keys.
 15. A computer program product as in claim 1, wherein modification to the at least one data page results in a new data page being generated and a new corresponding converter page being encrypted and stored to the physical storage, wherein the at least one converter page is no longer accessible after the new corresponding converter page is stored to the physical storage.
 16. A method comprising: encrypting, by a data storage application, at least one data page using a first initialization vector and at least one encryption key; encrypting, by the data storage application, at least one converter page using a second initialization vector and the at least one encryption key, the first initialization vector using the at least one converter page to encrypt the at least one data page; and storing the encrypted at least one data page and the at least one converter page to physical storage.
 17. A method as in claim 16, wherein the first initialization vector is defined by mapping data from the at least one converter page.
 18. A method as in claim 16, wherein the second initialization vector is defined by information from a parent page of the at least one converter page.
 19. A method as in claim 16, wherein modification to the at least one data page results in a new data page being generated and a new corresponding converter page being encrypted and stored to the physical storage, wherein the at least one converter page is no longer accessible after the new corresponding converter page is stored to the physical storage.
 20. A system comprising: at least one data processor; memory coupled to the at least one data processor, the memory storing instructions to cause the at least one data processor to perform operations comprising: encrypting, by a data storage application, at least one data page using a first initialization vector and at least one encryption key; encrypting, by the data storage application, at least one converter page using a second initialization vector and the at least one encryption key, the first initialization vector using the at least one converter page to encrypt the at least one data page; and storing the encrypted at least one data page and the at least one converter page to physical storage. 